Guided by Enzymes: Targeted Photodynamic Therapy as a Strategy for Precision Medicine

Abstract

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a clinically proven, non-invasive cancer treatment that enables precise spatial and temporal control of cytotoxicity. Yet, many current photosensitisers (PSs) suffer from poor tumour specificity, limiting their effectiveness. Targeted photodynamic therapy (tPDT) addresses this by directing PSs to selectively accumulate in tumour tissue. Among the emerging strategies, enzyme targeting stands out as a powerful approach. This review explores enzyme-targeted PDT using metal-based PSs conjugated to small-molecule enzyme inhibitors — a dual-action design that enables tumour destruction while blocking key pro-tumour signalling pathways. Five distinct proteins with enzymatic activity such as carbonic anhydrase (CA), cathepsin B, cyclooxygenase (COX), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) are presented through selected conjugates. These cases underscore the versatility of tPDT in achieving precise tumour targeting. By enhancing therapeutic efficacy, minimising off-target toxicity and collateral damage, and ultimately improving patient safety, enzyme-directed tPDT bridges targeted therapy, photomedicine, and precision oncology — setting the stage for next-generation cancer treatments.